Culture and Learning

Working as an English teacher in Taiwan this year has given me some insight as to how culture can impact cognitive development and how this in turn affects education.  In Taiwan, education is highly valued.  In the Chinese culture, Confucius was the respected teacher who promoted that true knowledge comes from long and hard study, and his philosophy has a great impact on the culture. 

The best schools in Taiwan are the public schools and they are free.  This is often in contrast to the west where students work hard and parents pay a lot of money for students to attend expensive, private schools.  Because the best education is public and it is free, there huge pressure on students from their parents to succeed in school.   In elementary school students have big exams that determine which middle schools they will attend.  I know students that are 12 years old that are up until 2am finishing homework and studying, and then they get up at 5am to be at school by 7.  All of a student’s grades, even from elementary school, are considered when one applies to university.  Any public holidays are “made up” on Saturdays.  This pressure to succeed has given way to numerous “cram school” – schools students attend after school to learn and improve their English, math, science, or whatever subject they choose.  When you ask a student what they do for fun, in Taiwan, they will most likely tell you they play computer games or sleep. 

This background on the culture can help one to understand how this pressure affects cognitive development.  As McDevitt and Ormrod state, “consistent with a belief that learning requires diligence and perseverance, many East Asian parents and teachers encourage frequent use of rehearsal and rote memorization strategies”  (McDevitt 254).    Elaboration and problem solving strategies are not the focus of education and you can see the implications.  Many students have difficulty when it comes to problem solving and “thinking outside of the box.”  The epistemological belief that knowledge is given from an authority leaves many wondering what to do if not told by someone else. 

It has been interesting learning and observing these differences while living in Taiwan, however it makes me aware of the need that western teachers need to take in teaching Asian immigrants.  Many students aren’t used to discussion or investigative learning.  When asked to problem solve they may easily become distressed.  We need to take this into consideration and ensure that we give them the strategies that they need to move beyond memorization and rote learning.  A teacher taking the time to model these strategies would help an Asian student to feel more comfortable in learning this way.  

McDevitt, Teresa, and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod.  Child Development and Education.  Columbus:  Merrill, 2007.

Token Economies

Have you ever used a token economy in your classroom?  What have you found to be successful?  

I have used bonus bucks.  

How it worked:

The bonus bucks in my classroom had different values. I would give students “bonus bucks” for any behavior that looked like the behavior I wanted in class.  I now realize that I was using shaping to reinforce good behavior in the classroom.  I would also give students bonus bucks for particularly good work.  The bonus bucks were used with “backup reinforcers” – i.e. – students could use their bonus bucks to purchase extra computer time, a no homework pass and a half off homework pass. 

The system really worked in my classroom because I was teaching in a non-traditional school, full of learners that hadn’t had much success in the past.  The bonus bucks gave clear guidance as to what behavior was expected and students would quickly change their behavior if they noticed other students were receiving the bucks and they weren’t.  It was immediate feedback and I didn’t even have to speak! 

What I will do differently next time…

Since I have learned more about “token economies” in the classroom, I would do some things differently the next time I use “bonus bucks.”  I would clearly establish rules for the distribution and loss of bonus bucks by using an information sheet.

I would also allow students to purchase their rewards more frequently from the “bonus bucks” store.  Ormrod recommends that older students be allowed to purchase once or twice a week. 

Eventually I was able to use the bonus bucks less and less.  Students began to reach the “terminal behavior” without me constantly giving out bonus bucks.  I would highly recommend using this system! 

I would love any further suggestions for backup reinforcers – do you have any ideas for rewards other than extra computer time, early lunch, no homework and ½ off homework?

Internalizing Self-Control and Effective Discipline

Self-control developed in early childhood is indicative of a child’s ability to demonstrate self-control later on in life.  As teachers who have vital attachments with our students, it is our responsibility to help students to internalize self-control.  We must also constantly be aware of those factors that hinder effective discipline and therefore undermine self-control and prevent internalized change and growth. 

Teachers have the power to directly help students in their ability to internalize self-control.  We should verbally encourage students that display self-control. Frequently teachers should self-assess their expectations of students, regarding self-control, to ensure that these expectations are age appropriate.  The classroom environment is under the teacher’s direct control and it is therefore, our responsibility to remove distractions from sight if a situation demands high self-control from our students.  Bergin and Bergin inform us that, “situations that remove temptations from sight result in greater self-control.”  For instance, it would not be of best judgment to allow some students to play educational computer games in close proximity to those students who are trying to complete work at their desks.  Such computer games would be stimulating and distracting to students who are trying to exercise self-control.  Teachers should also talk to parents of students that struggle in this area.  By getting the parents on board with you in-class initiatives, you are helping a parent to understand how important it is that their child develop self-control. 

Teachers can also use their knowledge about self-control and human development to teach students ways that they can monitor their own self-control.  For example, if there are certain students that are easily angered and explosive, a teacher can tell them it is completely appropriate for them to ask to go to the bathroom in order to have some time to cool off.  We can also give our students tips such as generating their own distractions when they are tempted to lose self-control. 

 Effective discipline the most important key to self-control.  Effective discipline is hindered when teachers allow power struggles or authority complexes to command a difficult situation.  Instead of using induction, it is easy for a teacher to lose self-control and demand that a child leave the room or to “obey orders, or else.”  When a teacher loses self-control in this way it sets a very poor example for students.  I have often seen these power struggles.  Even though the teacher may “win” it is ugly and the students completely disengage and no values are internalized.

 If we, as teachers, don’t take the time and patience to establish and practice daily routines, procedures and expectations we are creating an environment that hinders effective discipline, as much of this discipline can be prevented by excellent classroom management.  It is insufficient to explain classroom rules the first day of school and then to expect students to recall them months later.  We need to practice routines and explain expectations, rules and consequences consistently throughout the early months of the school year. According to Bergin and Bergin, “research finds that teachers who are good classroom managers spend considerable time at the beginning of the school year explaining rules and procedures.  We also have a problem if we explain these rules and procedures and don’t consistently and fairly enforce them.  It is easy to let little things “slide,” however, it hinders effective discipline when we lose this consistency in our rules and procedures. 

As teachers we also can prevent effective discipline if we are too authoritarian and don’t establish a positive and caring environment where students know that they will be corrected, however, they will still be safe.  Harsh discipline in a negative environment instills fear and orders may be followed, however, values will not be internalized.  In Bermuda, this is far too often a problem.  Both teachers and parents can discipline in a way that is extremely harsh, with threats and shouting, and unfortunately, students have complete disrespect and fail to take many teachers seriously unless they threaten and shout.  Fortunately, we know that with persistence and induction this can be reversed. 

Disorganized teachers that walk into class late and have to fiddle with papers and figure out what they’re doing for the period also hinder effective discipline as they provide students with the time and opportunity to lose self-control.

We also need to ensure that “intended punishment is not reinforcing.”  For instance, I know some students thrive on having a “bad” image.  They want to be infamous as the student who gets sent out of class and never takes things seriously.  We shouldn’t reinforce that image, but instead set high expectations, even for these difficult students.

A lack of effective discipline at home will also hinder effective discipline at school.  During a student-teaching experience I had the unpleasant experience of watching a parent barge into a classroom during the social studies period and then begin to shout at the teacher.  This display of lack of self-control by a parent is poor modeling for her child and will hinder effective discipline at school; the teacher will have to spend a lot of time and be very patient in order for the student to understand the value of self-control.   Permissive parents who lack consistency and any expectations also hinder effective discipline as they may fail to enforce the need for homework to be done at home.  Bergin and Bergin inform their readers that, “children of permissive parents have relatively poor self-control and poor academic performance,” mainly due to the lack on monitoring in the home. 

Some communities can send negative expectations regarding their students, and this too, can hinder effective discipline.  These negative expectations can easily become a self-fulfilling prophecy and students will act as is expected. 

Ultimately, as teachers we should seek to foster internalized discipline in our students and look for ways to promote effective discipline.  We should educate our students, our co-workers, parents and ourselves about the importance of both self-control and effective discipline to help all members of our school communities.

Student, Family and Community

A question that is often thrown around is whether schools can address students’ needs and help students learn despite larger issues in society, their communities and family.  In my opinion, it is the teacher’s responsibility to provide engaging lessons, varying instructional strategies and a safe learning environment, however, negative family environments can inhibit and counteract progress at school. 

Children who have rough home lives can have extreme difficulty concentrating in the classroom; if students are “sad, angry or distracted” they may be unable to pay attention and grasp concepts in the classroom” (McDevitt 151). Students that haven’t been taught how to appropriately express emotions from young may have relational conflicts with peers at schools.  Lack of sleep and poor nutrition also directly affect students alertness and ability to function in school (McDevitt 168, 175). Like other teachers, I have seen the ramifications of lack of sleep and stress directly affect my students.   When students walk into the classroom, red eyed and depressed, informing you that their parents had been fighting late into the night we realize that we are fighting an uphill battle.

A child’s language is also primarily developed at home during early childhood and negative examples at home can counteract formal education (McDevitt 154).  Students also come to school with different levels of “readiness.”  Children who have sat in front of a television during their formative years will have had fewer, “informal experimentation opportunities” and less time for exploration and knowledge building (McDevitt 157). 

 It is at home, in the early stages of childhood that children learn to, “cope with stress or let anxious feelings escalate” (McDevitt 148).  Students that haven’t been taught appropriate social skills may be aggressive and have emotional outbursts in school.

Teachers can do their best to keep parents involved and informed as to how they can best help their students at home.  I think that one of the best ways to do this is to establish consistent, positive communication with parents.  Parents that know you have their child’s best interests at heart, and are on “their side” are going to be more willing to listen to your concerns.  By establishing a positive relationship, parents may feel more comfortable to ask questions as to how they can reinforce and encourage successful academic behaviors at home. 

Due to the fact that we spend so much time with our students, we should realize the great effect that we can have on students.  We can do our best to use reinforcement and knowledge of development to fill in the gaps as we are able.  I think it’s so important that we remember that we don’t know what difficulties students may be experiencing at home and in their communities.  It is vital that we become a safe and caring leader that provides high expectations.  Even if everything about life outside of school is grim, students can know that someone believes in them and wants to help them.

We can do our best to provide safe, stimulating learning environments and sometimes we may have success and overcome the odds against us.  However, if children aren’t being nurtured and supported outside of school, we shouldn’t expect miracles. 

 

McDveitt, Theresa, M.  and Jeanne Ellis Ormorod.  Child Development and Edcuation.  New Jeresy:  Pearson Education, 2002.  

Students & Self Control

In my short time teaching I have seen my share of students who lack self-control.  These students are easily distracted, are slow to work and are the students that have emotional outbursts.

This week in my class on human development, we are reading about self-control.  Did you know that students that have good self-control at a young age will most likely have a high level of self-control through their teen years?  Best to train children from young in this area to prevent more serious problems later on!

Self-Control directly affects social competence and academic achievement 

Students that exhibit low self-control tend to be, “more aggressive, less cooperative,  and prone to behavior problems” than students who exhibit good self-control.  These students, therefore, struggle with social competence.  Students with low self-control also have lower academic achievement.  

Effective discipline is one of the most powerful ways to affect self-control.  

Gender, social-economic-status, and nationality can also factor into a student’s self-control.  Although it’s important to understand that these factors can affect self-control – it’s important not to stereotype as all students are different.  

As teachers, we can help our students to develop self-control by doing simple things such as praising students that exhibit self-control and establishing routines and procedures.  Not only will self-controlled students be a joy to teach, but you are helping your students by possibly affecting their ability to resist major temptations as they progress through life.  Take time to read and educate yourself on how to help your students develop self-control!

Online Resource: www.learner.org

“Teacher resources and teacher professional development programming across the curriculum”

The resource www.learner.org is an invaluable resource for the teacher who constantly wants to grow.  This resource will help teachers who want to develop best practices and who want to be really effective in helping their students grow as learners. 

Teachers can watch hours and hours of free workshops and professional development videos to help them in many different areas. There are videos for any discipline and subject area and include current teaching practices. It’s a valuable resource for a teacher that is looking to implement new strategies but don’t really know how they should look in the classroom.  Watching these videos allows teachers a look into how these strategies are used in the classroom. 

I personally enjoyed watching a video about the teacher as a writer.  During the Spring semester I took a class that strongly encouraged writing teachers to view themselves as writers.  Watching videos on www.learner.org has allowed me to see teachers as writers in the classroom.  The videos take what teachers may have known from reading educational books and allow us to view these concepts in action. 

This website is also really helpful for  teachers that teach a content area that isn’t their first choice.  For example, last year I taught math in a contained classroom, but hadn’t ever taught math before.  This website would have been a great resource for me to know how to best teach math.

The website is practical and user-friendly;  you can search the disciplines by grade levels.  You can also learn and keep up on current issues in areas such as assessment.  This website would be useful for teachers to self-assess their own teaching.  By looking through the sections for the disciplines that you teach you can ensure that you are using best practices in your teaching and evaluate yourself as a teacher. 

At Risk Students: An Annotated Bibliography

Alder, Nora.  “Instructional Strategies to Increase Motivation, Close the Achievement Gap, and Help Students Reach Their Potential.”  Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond.  March 2007.  18 February 2009.  <www.soe.vcu.edu/merc/ALDER%20MCKELVY%20combined.doc>

As clearly stated in the title, this article focuses on motivation and instructional strategies that lessen the achievement gap, particularly for middle and high school students.  The article also looks at the affects of society, schools- and their communities, family and the classroom.  The main focus on instructional strategies is found in the section of the classroom.  As this study focuses on closing the achievement gap, it includes those students who are at-risk, and also looks at minority students and urban students. 

Bauer, Denise S., Jennifer L. Lupo.  Improving Attitudes in Reading through Multiple Instructional Strategies in an At-Risk Environment. Thesis. Saint Xavier University, Chicago. May 2001.   ERIC.  MU Libraries, Columbia, MO. 16 February 2009.  <http://proxy.mul.missouri.edu:11797/ids70/quick_search.php?SID=9anpgjopm78shmdrtgacmnmq70>

This above thesis describes a program for improving reading abilities and attitudes for “at-risk students in low-income communities.  The study focuses on the second and fourth grade classes. Although most of the strategies are specific to reading, this article supports socialization and group learning as a strategy for at-risk students. After applying the strategies the students enjoyed reading more and the percentage of students who would rather do other things than read decreased. 

“Critical Issue:  Providing Effective Schooling for Students at Risk.” 1996. Learning Point Associates. 20 February 2009.  <http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at600.htm>

This website provides the reader with basic information about at-risk students and also suggests practices that can help these students reach their true potential.  The “action options” section of the webpage gives teachers many strategies to implement when working with at-risk students to help them have success.  

“Critical Issue: Rethinking Learning for Students at Risk.” 1997.  Learning Point Associates.  20 February 2009. <http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at700.htm>

Detailing specific strategies that are useful for students who are at-risk, this article is very practical and the classroom teacher should easily be able to implement these strategies immediately.  Certain instructional strategies that work best for at-risk students are highlighted and supported with research.  The article also highlights implementation ideas for administrators and details different points of view and possible pit-falls with the strategies.

Katims, David S., and Janis M. Harmon. “Strategic instruction in middle school social studies: enhancing academic and literacy outcomes for at-risk students.” Intervention in School and Clinic 35.5 (2000): 280-9. Education Full Text. H. W. Wilson. MU Libraries, Columbia, MO.  18 Feb. 2009 <http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com/>

Rieg, Sue A. “Classroom Assessment Strategies: What do Students At-Risk and Teachers Perceive as Effective and Useful?.” Journal of Instructional Psychology 34.4 (Dec. 2007): 214-225. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. MU Libraries. Columbia, MO. 16 Feb. 2009 <http://proxy.mul.missouri.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=28349627&site=ehost-live&scope=site>.

This article discusses assessment strategies for at-risk students and looks at the difference between teachers’ and at-risk students’ perceptions of use and effectiveness of these strategies.  The research detailed in the article was conducted in three schools in Pennsylvania with at-risk students, or those students who are at-risk of failing their classes, have high rates of absenteeism or those who may become dropouts.  The focus of the study is to help teachers find effective ways to assess students that are at-risk and makes the point that, “Perhaps we need to evaluate whether adolescents are really at risk or educators are making them at-risk because of their assessment strategies.” 

Snow, David.  “Classroom Strategies for Helping At-Risk Students.”  Noteworthy Perspectives.  Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning.  2003.  18 February 2009. < http://www.mcrel.org:80/topics/products/152/>

Conducting a synthesis of 118 studies conducted between 1985 and 2002, “Classroom Strategies for Helping At-Risk Students,” seeks to answer the question, “What are effective strategies that can be used in classrooms to assist low-achieving students?  The research mainly deals with whole class instruction, cognitively oriented instruction, small groups, tutoring, peer tutoring and computer-assisted instruction.  The journal makes the point that the topics it mentions are those, which have been proven to help at-risk students, and therefore all other strategies not included have not proved effective for at-risk students.

At Risk Students: Instructional Strategy Problems

One of the main problems in identifying strategies to help at-risk students is that the term “at-risk” is ambiguous as it is hard to qualify – how at risk are certain students?  According to the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, “”The question of what it means to be “at risk” is controversial. When children do not succeed in school, educators and others disagree about who or what is to blame. Because learning is a process that takes place both inside and outside school, an ecological approach offers a working description of the term at risk. In this view, inadequacies in any arena of life–the school, the home, or the community–can contribute to academic failure when not compensated for in another arena. Why is there a need to focus especially on at-risk students? The personal, economic, and social costs of academic underachievement are high and growing. Each year, increasing numbers of students enter school with circumstances in their lives that schools are ill prepared to accommodate. Yet from this academically and culturally diverse population must come the next generation of scientists, engineers, and other skilled professionals”  (Critical Issues:  Providing Effective Schooling).

At Risk Students: Successful Strategies

Successful Strategies

The main successful strategies for work with at-risk students are giving students ownership in planning and allowing for a lot of student choice in reading and assignments.  This would also lead into another popular strategy for working with at-risk students, which is using alternative assessment – allowing students to produce a portfolio or give an oral presentation rather than taking a written test.  It is vital that students who are at-risk are held to high expectations.

 The research proves that students who are at-risk need to be held to the same standards as other students as when they are given their own lower adaptation of the curriculum they do not succeed.  Teachers need to allow these students to have high self-esteem and therefore they should be grouped heterogeneously rather than with other at-risk students.

Students who are at-risk also benefit from meaningful, authentic work that is connected to their lives.  They often succeed in cooperative learning groups and they strongly need and desire timely feedback.

At Risk Students: Quick Facts

Things to Know About At-Risk Students

The term “at risk” is used frequently in the educational world, so I want to define “at risk” in order to provide some clarity.  At risk students have, “inadequacies in any arena of life – the school, the home, or the community – {which} can contribute to academic failure when not compensated for in another arena”  (Critical Issues:  Providing Effective Schooling).  At-risk students can be those students who are “at risk” of failing school; they may not meet the requirements for promotion to the next grade level or for graduation.  They are the lower achieving students in our classroom.  Often, ethnic minorities, students with disabilities, probationary students, and those students with a low socioeconomic status are considered to be “at risk.”  

Quick Facts about the Needs of At-Risk Students

1)  At risk students need high expectations 

Students who are at-risk have often had low expectations set for them throughout their elementary setting and they can quickly develop learned helplessness.  They need teachers to hold them to higher expectations to increase their self-esteem and also to motivate them to work harder.

2)  At risk students may need extra time to complete assignments

Although students who are at risk should be held to the same expectations as other students, the teacher should be more lenient if the students need extra time to complete those assignments.  Of course, this does not mean that students can be lazy and turn work in late, but at a later date previously negotiated with the teacher. 

3)  At risk students need teachers who care

Most at risk students come from a background where they do not have as much educational support at home as other students.  They ultimately need teachers who are willing to invest the extra time to work with them and be patient with them and show that they care about them both academically and as individuals.  However, it is important that teachers not assume that these at risk students do not have support in their homes, as some of them do have a great support system at home.

4)  At risk students need opportunities to work with other students

At risk students should be allowed to work with other students in the classroom and whenever they are grouped they should be grouped heterogeneously.  At risk students benefit from peer tutoring and can learn socially with other students in the class.

5)  At risk students need to take ownership of their learning.

As many at risk students have struggled through years of schooling and see it as a necessary evil in their lives.  If they are allowed to take some ownership in their lessons (i.e. helping the teacher to build the rubric) they are then more likely to be committed to the task and more motivated.